Answer - The poverty line in India is estimated based on the minimum level of income or consumption required to satisfy basic needs like food, clothing, and shelter.

• The estimation is done using consumption data collected by the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO).
• A person is considered below the poverty line if their consumption is below the required calorie intake: 2400 calories in rural areas and 2100 calories in urban areas.
• The poverty line is expressed in terms of income – for example, in 2011-12, it was ₹816 per person per month in rural areas and ₹1000 in urban areas.
• The poverty line is revised from time to time using price indices to account for inflation and cost of living.
• Committees like the Tendulkar Committee have suggested changes to improve poverty estimation by including expenses on health and education.

Answer - The current methodology of poverty estimation has its strengths, but it also faces certain limitations.

• It focuses mainly on income or calorie intake and does not consider factors like health, education, or access to basic services.
• It sets a uniform poverty line, ignoring regional differences in cost of living and development.
• People slightly above the poverty line may still lack basic necessities but are not counted as poor.
• Experts suggest using a broader definition of poverty called 'human poverty' that includes health, education, and dignity.
• Therefore, although useful, the current method needs refinement to provide a more accurate and comprehensive measure of poverty.

Answer - The poverty trend in India since 1973 is marked by a gradual decline in poverty ratios over the decades.

• In 1973, around 55% of India's population lived below the poverty line.
• By 2011-12, this number had reduced to about 22%.
• Urban areas have seen a faster reduction in poverty compared to rural areas.
• States like Kerala, Maharashtra, and Punjab have witnessed sharp declines in poverty due to better infrastructure and welfare measures.
• However, poverty continues to be a serious issue in states like Bihar, Odisha, and Uttar Pradesh, where development is still lagging.

Answer - Several historical and economic factors have contributed to the persistence of poverty in India.

• Slow economic growth during the colonial period and early years of independence limited job opportunities and income growth.
• Unequal distribution of land and resources, with many people still landless or owning very small plots.
• Dependence on agriculture, which is often affected by weather and has low productivity.
• Lack of proper education and skill development limits access to better-paying jobs.
• Rapid population growth puts pressure on resources and reduces the benefits of development.
• Social discrimination and caste system also marginalize certain groups, increasing their chances of being poor.

Answer - Certain social and economic groups in India are more vulnerable to poverty than others.

• Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) face higher levels of poverty due to historical discrimination and social exclusion.
• Landless agricultural labourers and casual workers in the urban informal sector are often underpaid and have no job security.
• Women-headed households and disabled individuals also experience greater poverty risks due to lack of support systems.
• Religious minorities like Muslims also show a higher poverty ratio in certain regions.

Answer - Poverty is not evenly spread across India; there are significant differences between states.

• States like Kerala, Maharashtra, Punjab, and Haryana have lower poverty levels due to better healthcare, education, and employment.
• In contrast, states like Odisha, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh continue to have high poverty rates.
• Economic growth, land reforms, and public distribution systems (PDS) play a big role in reducing poverty across states.
• Southern and western states generally perform better than the eastern and central parts of India.

Answer - Global poverty has seen a significant decline over the years, but it still remains a major concern.

• The proportion of people living in extreme poverty has reduced from about 36% in 1990 to around 10% in recent years.
• Most poverty reduction has occurred in countries like China and Southeast Asian nations due to rapid economic growth.
• Sub-Saharan Africa still has very high poverty levels, with many people lacking access to basic services.
• Latin America has shown improvement but still struggles with income inequality and unemployment.

Answer - The government of India has adopted multiple strategies to alleviate poverty through both growth and welfare schemes.

• It focuses on economic growth to create more jobs and increase income.
• It also implements targeted anti-poverty programs such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), PM Awas Yojana, and PM Garib Kalyan Yojana.
• Public distribution system (PDS) provides food at subsidized rates to poor families.
• Schemes for skill development, rural employment, health care, and education are also being promoted.
• However, implementation and corruption remain challenges in ensuring the benefits reach the actual needy.

Answer - (i) Human poverty: Human poverty means a lack of basic human needs like education, health care, nutrition, sanitation, and dignity of life, not just lack of income.

(ii) Poorest of the poor: These are people who suffer the most from poverty, such as women, children, the aged, and socially marginalized communities. They are often landless, unemployed, and have no regular source of income.

(iii) Main features of NREGA 2005:
• Provides 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to rural households willing to do unskilled manual work.
• Focuses on creating durable assets like roads, canals, and ponds.
• Promotes women’s participation by ensuring at least one-third of the beneficiaries are women.
• Workers are paid minimum wages, and payment must be made within 15 days.
• Enhances livelihood security and reduces migration by creating local employment.